Twenty Questions for Perspectivist Epistemologists

A Chapter in the book Advances in Social & Organizational Psychology: A Tribute to Ralph

by McGuire
Yale University

Contains areas of emphasis required in research

See some of the pages of the chapter from google books




http://books.google.co.in/books?id=yYOKG3PzWeMC&pg=RA1-PA355&lpg=RA1-PA355&dq=%22research+tactics%22&source=web&ots=16l9D7kAup&sig=ylGbL_hQJrau-QVTNPyyKZmfDeE&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=6&ct=result#PRA1-PA329,M1

Research Tactics-1

The techniques which are used to collect evidence and which influence the way in which the evidence will be analysed are referred to here as research tactics.

Galliers (1992) provides a list of approaches or tactics.

Galliers, R. (1992) Information systems Research: Issues, Methods and Practical Guidelines, Alfred Waller Information Systems Series, Henley-on-Thames

Action Research

Action research was developed during the 1960s and has proved particularly useful in the area of managing change.

French and Bell (1978) have defined it as:

"The process of systematically collecting research data about an ongoing system relative to some objective, goal or need of that system; feeding these data back into the system; taking action by altering selected variables within the system based both on the data and on hypotheses; and evaluating the results of the actions by collecting more data."

As a process it essentially involves

Taking a static picture of the organisational situation;
Formulating a hypotheses regarding improvement of the system based on the picture;
The manipulation of variables in control of the researcher;
Taking and evaluating a second static picture of the situation.

The action researcher ("for a dissertation") is thus involved in a real manner in an organisational situation where there is not only an expectation that a ‘contribution to knowledge’ should be made, but also to directly produce usable knowledge that ‘can be applied and validated in action’(Gummesson,1991).

The skill here is whether the researcher can successfully combine the role of almost a consultant and that of academic researcher.

A recent example of a dissertation based on action research involved a researcher who implemented a new activity based costing system in an organisation. The focus the research was to understand how this new technique was being used to improve corporate financial performance.

A reserch paper based on action based research
“Second Generation” e-Learning: Characteristics and Design Principles for Supporting Management Soft-Skills Development, septermber 2005, download from
http://www.newmindsets.com/resources/2ndGenELearning.pdf

Case Studies

The case study allows the investigator to concentrate on specific instances in an attempt to identify detailed interactive processes which may be crucial, but which are transparent to the large-scale survey. Case studies are an important approach for business and management researchers and some masters and much doctoral research work is conducted using this method.(Dan Remenyi)

Example 1

A recent example of dissertation based on a case study approach involved the detailed examination of a large industrial conglomerate over a substantial period of time. The focus of this case study was to understand the inter-relationships between the group corporate strategy and the individual strategies of the separate and somewhat independent subsidiaries in the group.

The main focus of the analytical work was on quantitative issues that employed the extensive use of a statistical packages.
For another dissertation an intensive case study of a medium-sized specialist consulting practice was conducted .

The objective here was to investigate the evolution of power relationships in the orgnisation. Practice which enabled some observation of interaction between consultants during the normal course of the working day. The company also allowed the researcher access to board and weekly planning meeting. In addition, interviews were conducted with at least ten consultants and support staff. The chairperson and managing director were also interviewed as they both consulted with clients. The data collected was then analysed using the grounded theory method. (Dan Remenyi et al.)


Example 2

Integration Management of Western Acquisitions in Japan
Fabian J Froese, Leif E Goeritz.
Asian Business & Management. Houndmills:
Mar 2007. Vol. 6, Iss. 1; pg. 95, 20 pgs


Considering these concerns, and the exploratory nature of our research objectives, we chose a case study research design. Case studies are especially appropriate when one is answering the questions why or how (Yin, 1994). To address Geddes' (1990) critique that selecting only cases with a positive outcome might lead to false inferences, we deliberately chose two companies with similar preconditions, but divergent outcomes. This research design is based on J.S. Mill's theory of difference and allows the formulation of theories for success and failures (Eisenhardt, 1989). As suggested by Yin, we advanced our research question and identified potentially important constructs in the literature before collecting data. Based on previous research (Birkinshaw et al. , 2000), we separated the integration process into human and organizational integration. For human integration, we identified communication, participation and leadership as potentially important factors; for organizational integration, we identified the factors of speed and level of integration. During interviews, observations and data analysis, we paid special attention to these factors, eg we prepared several questions regarding these factors for our interview guideline, but were also open to any emerging findings (Eisenhardt, 1989; Yin, 1994).

Example 3.IIM Ahmedabad Fellowship Dissertation

ECIL: A Case Study of Environmental Change and Organizational Response in the Public Sector

S. Manikutty (1987)

A compendium of Dissertation Abstracts of the Fellow Programme in Management, IIM Ahmedabad, Macmilllan India Limited, Delhi, 1998

http://management-pros.blogspot.com/2008/07/response-of-public-sector-enterprises.html

Ethnography

A recent dissertation that used elements of ethnography was produced for a PhD where the student spent three years studying how the corporate culture changed as an organisation went on the acquisition trail.

This dissertation was not exclusively ethnographic and it would be quite unusual for a business and management research degree only to employ a pure ethnographic approach.

Field Experiments

A recent example of dissertation based on a field experiment was a study as to how a group of sales people responded to a new incentive payment in one particular part of an organisation. The researcher was able to to examine the sales group performance before the introduction of the new incentive scheme and was then able to observe the differences in performance after the change.

Using primarily quantitative techniques, this research confirmed that the new arrangements did in fact work and that they were suitable to be employed throughout the whole orgnisation. This approach to research is usually straightforward, with the main problem for the researcher being the acquisition of access to organisations undertaking changes in the field.(Dan Remenyi et al.)

Focus Groups

The evidence collected during a focus group is usually analysed using qualitative techniques. Focus groups are a useful way of obtaining evidence from experts in an intense or concentrated way.

Forecasting

A recent example of a dissertation based on forecasting research was work conducted to establish the viability of multiple regression analysis in supporting decisions to invest in plant and equipment in a large-scale processing industry.

This was a highly quantitative and mathematical piece of work which relied on a high degree of numerical sophistication as well as the ability to interpret the results in a way which was of value to management . The result of this work showed that the forecasting approach being studied did in fact contribute to the organisation’s ability to forecast their need for more investment.

Futures Research

A recent example of a masters dissertation that involved futures research was a study to establish what leading firms of charted accountants thought were the main technological developments that would affect their practices or business over the next five years.(Dan Remenyui et al.)

Game or Role Playing

This research tactic or approach involves asking individuals to participate in a business or management game by playing out a specific role.

A recent example of a dissertation based on game or role playing considered how managers made different decisions when they were put in different competitive situations. (Dan Remenyi et al.)

In-depth Surveys

The use of in-depth surveys is well illustrated by research conducted into how innovative companies manage to maintain an environment that supports new product development.

Twelve companies were identified and asked to identified and asked to identify three innovative products. The data was analysed through the use of quantitative methods where researchers compared quantifiable data across companies. However, the primary focus of analysis was on the qualitative data in the form of stories. (Danremenyi et al.)

Laboratory Experiments

Sometimes students are used as surrogates for managers and executives in laboratory settings, but this is not often considered convincing. Laboratory experiments are used far more frequently in the USA than in other parts of the world (Tung and Heminger,1993).

A recent example of a dissertation based on this approach was one in which the researcher used a group decision support system to examine how decision making differed depending upon a variety of different variables, including the number of decision makers participating in the meeting.

This experiment provided an insight into how different types of questions are best handled under different circumstances. Laboratory experiments use quantitative techniques of evidence analysis to deliver answers to highly structures research questions. (Dan Remenyi et al.)

Large –scale Surveys

The logic of a traditional survey is strictly positivistic.

The evidence is frequently treated as though it were the result of measurements of a machine used in an entirely physical or life science environment.

Standard statistical techniques used for ordinal numbers are increasingly applied with no recognition of the problems of the subjectivity of the opinions.

Although surveys are still extensively used in business and management research there is an increasing feeling that they are not suitable for the collection of evidence about management issues. (Dan Remenyi et al.)



A recent example of a dissertation based on a large-scale survey was an exploration into the acceptance of an organisation’s computer strategy by its staff, by examining the level of user satisfaction with a management information systems based on end-user computing.

Some 1,500 computer users within the organisation were asked to complete a questionnaire, and approximately 300 completed forms were returned. These were analysed using a number of statistical approaches. As a result of the evidence collected it was possible to suggest ways in which the organisation could improve the implementation of its strategy.(Dan Remenyi et al.)

Participant Observer Approach

A recent example of the participant-observer approach involved research conducted into the management of design and manufacturing processes in small textile companies in central England. The student conducted research in two companies and spent some time working as an employee in these organisations.

Access was negotiated with the owner –manager of the organisations and the researcher participated as a complete participant, or a normal member of the organisation, gathering information on how the design and the production process was managed by working alongside the mainly female workforce.(Dan Remenyi et al)

Scenario Research

A recent example of a dissertation using scenario discussions as part of an evidence collection strategy involved the presentation of a number of viewsa a to how the market for a product might change over the next five years. Each scenario was fully debated by a group of informants and the researcher collected their evidence. Thise was then analysed in the same way as it would be in the case of in-depth interviews or focus groups.

Simulation or Stochastic Modelling

A recent example of a dissertation based on simulation involved in the building of a mathematical model which was used to describe how to optimise the logistics function of a large manufacturing firm.



Dan remenyi, Brina Williams, Arther Money, and Ethne Swartz, Doing Research in Business and Management: An Introduction to Process and Method,